In The Beginning
3.5 Billion Years Ago

Stromatolites, the oldest known fossils, are dated to be 3.5 billion years old and were formed by the activities of ancient bacteria.

The Great Oxygenation Event
2.1 Billion Years Ago

Cyanobacteria, through photosynthesis, began producing significant amounts of oxygen, leading to a dramatic increase in Earth's atmospheric oxygen levels. This event enabled the evolution of aerobic life forms, singlehandedly changing the course of Earth’s history forever.

The First Microbiomes
1 Billion Years Ago

Development of microbial mats, complex structured communities of microorganisms, including bacteria, forming some of the earliest ecosystems and contributing to the formation of Earth's earliest sedimentary structures.

Cambrian Explosion
580 Million Years Ago

A rapid diversification of multicellular life forms. Bacteria, as primary decomposers and nutrient cyclers, were essential in supporting this diversification.

Devonian Period
350 Million Years Ago

First appearance of land plants. Soil bacteria played a critical role in nutrient cycling, facilitating the colonization of land by plants and contributing to the formation of early soils.

End of the Cretaceous Period
65 Million Years Ago

Marked by the extinction of dinosaurs. Bacteria played a key role in the decomposition and nutrient recycling processes during this and other mass extinction events, helping to reshape Earth's ecosystems.

The Invention of Fire
2 Million Years Ago

First evidence of controlled use of fire by hominids. The control of fire likely led to changes in diet and living conditions, indirectly affecting the types and roles of bacteria in the human environment and gut.

Fun With Fermentation
50,000 BCE

Archaeological evidence suggests that early humans likely utilized fermentation, a process driven by bacteria, for food preservation and preparation, such as in the making of beer, wine, and bread.

Human Urbanization
4,000 BCE

Emergence of cities in Mesopotamia. Urbanization likely led to changes in sanitation and waste management, impacting the spread and types of bacterial diseases.

Early Antimicrobials
3,000 BCE

Ancient Egyptians used molds and plant extracts for treating infections, indicating an early understanding of antimicrobial substances.

Early Concepts of Disease
1,500 BCE

The Shang Dynasty in China makes references to 'disease demons' and 'ghosts', reflecting an early conceptualization of unseen agents causing disease.

Jainism
600 BCE

Jainism in ancient India postulated the existence of microscopic organisms, based on the teachings of Mahavira.

The Father of Modern Medicine
400 BCE

“All diseases begin in the gut”
“Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”
- Hippocrates

Early Public Health
116 BCE

Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro suggested the possibility of disease being caused by creatures not visible to the naked eye, particularly in his warnings against locating homesteads near swamps.

Inflammation
25 CE

Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a Roman encyclopedist, describes the signs and symptoms of inflammation, suggesting an awareness of the body’s response to infection.

Sterilization
300 CE

Byzantine physicians start using heated tools for surgery, indirectly reducing bacterial infections though the concept of sterilization was not yet understood.

Contagion
980 CE

The Persian polymath Avicenna, in "The Canon of Medicine," hypothesized the contagious nature of diseases like tuberculosis.

The Black Death
1346 CE

The Black Death pandemic spreads across Europe. While the role of bacteria (Yersinia pestis) was not known at the time, this event significantly impacted societal views on disease and hygiene.

Early Germ Theory
1546 CE

Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable "seed-like entities," which could transmit infection through direct or indirect contact.

The Microscope
1590 CE

Invention of the compound microscope by Zacharias Janssen, a key development that would later enable the visualization of bacteria.

The Telescope
1609 CE

Galileo Galilei improves the telescope, indirectly influencing the development of more advanced microscopes, crucial for the later direct observation of bacteria.

The Observation of Animalcules
1683 CE

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek communicates his discovery of 'animalcules' to the Royal Society, providing the first description and visual evidence of bacteria.

Savior of Mothers
1847 CE

Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian physician and pioneer of antiseptic procedures, discovered that disinfecting one’s hands could greatly reduce the incidence of infections. Following the implementation of his findings at Vienna General Hospital’s First Obstetrical Clinic, maternal mortality rate dropped from 18% to less than 2%. Initially ostracized for his claims, it was not until Louis Pasteur’s confirmation of germ theory that Semmelweis’ revolutionary insights into clinical hygiene would be accepted and appreciated.

Proteins
1838 CE

The concept of proteins was first described by the Dutch chemist Gerardus Johannes Mulder and named by Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius. He coined the term "protein," derived from the Greek word "proteios," meaning "primary" or "of prime importance." This marked the acknowledgment of proteins as distinct biological molecules.

Early Epidemiology
1854 CE

John Snow's investigation of the Broad Street cholera outbreak in London was a seminal event in public health, linking contaminated water to disease transmission and establishing principles of epidemiology.

Germ Theory
1861 CE

Louis Pasteur's experiments with swan-neck flasks disprove spontaneous generation, demonstrating that microorganisms (bacteria) are the source of decay, and establishing the germ theory of disease.

Early Surgical Standards
1867 CE

Joseph Lister's introduction of carbolic acid for sterilizing surgical instruments and cleaning wounds was a groundbreaking step in antiseptic surgery, drastically reducing postoperative infections and mortality rates.

Koch’s Postulates
1876 CE

Robert Koch's identification of the anthrax bacillus, Bacillus anthracis, and formulation of Koch's postulates, provided a systematic method for linking specific pathogens to diseases, fundamentally changing the field of infectious disease research.

Bad Breath
1879 CE

Doctor Joseph Lawrence created a unique antiseptic formulation to kill ‘bad breath bacteria’, inspired by the research of Sir Joseph Lister — he called it Listerine.

Chemotaxis
1880 CE

Wilhelm Pfeffer conducted experiments demonstrating chemotaxis in bacteria, showing that they can move and react in response to chemical gradients in their environment. His work in the 1880s was crucial in understanding how bacteria navigate and respond to stimuli, furthering the knowledge of bacterial behavior and physiology.

Tuberculosis
1882 CE

Robert Koch's discovery of the tuberculosis bacillus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, not only identified the causative agent of tuberculosis but also reinforced the germ theory of disease, highlighting the role of specific pathogens in specific diseases.

The Gram Stain
1884 CE

Hans Christian Gram's development of the Gram stain, a fundamental technique for bacterial classification and identification.

The Petri Dish
1887 CE

Richard Petri developed the Petri dish in 1887, providing a vital tool for growing and observing bacterial cultures. This invention enabled the isolation of bacterial colonies on solid culture media, revolutionizing microbiological research and experimentation.

The Lock and Key Model
1894 CE

Emil Fischer proposed that enzymes, previously mysterious in nature, were actually proteins. He also proposed the lock and key model to explain enzyme specificity, suggesting that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. This revelation linked proteins directly to biochemical reactions and metabolic pathways, vastly expanding the understanding of biological processes.

Dyes That Make Bacteria Die
1910 CE

Paul Ehrlich discovered a cure for syphilis using Salvarsan, also known as arsphenamine, in 1910. This groundbreaking achievement marked the first effective chemotherapeutic agent for treating a bacterial disease. Salvarsan, developed after extensive research and hundreds of experimental compounds, was a significant milestone in medical history, introducing a new era of antibacterial treatment and laying the foundation for modern chemotherapy.

Transformation
1923 CE

Frederick Griffith's demonstration of bacterial transformation, showing that bacteria can take up and express genetic material from their environment.

Colicins
1925 CE

Belgian scientist André Gratia describes the activity of colicin, at the time only understood to be an antimicrobial substance produced by Escherichia coli. Colicins were the first described bacteriocins, antimicrobial proteins produced by bacteria.

Penicillin
1928 CE

Alexander Fleming's serendipitous discovery of penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, marked a turning point in medical history, leading to the development of a new class of drugs that would revolutionize the treatment of bacterial infections.

Nisin
1928 CE

Nisin, a bacteriocin produced by Lactococcus lactis, was first identified in milk in 1928. Nisin is now the most studied bacteriocin in the world.

Sulfas
1932 CE

In 1932, Gerhard Domagk discovered Prontosil, the first sulfa drug, heralding a new era in the treatment of bacterial infections. Prontosil, as the first effective antibacterial agent of its kind, significantly impacted the medical field by providing an effective means to combat a wide range of bacterial diseases, especially streptococcal infections.

Secondary Structure
1933 CE

Linus Pauling, renowned American chemist and Nobel laureate, is credited with the discovery of secondary protein structure in 1933. Pauling's work laid the groundwork for understanding how proteins fold and the role of hydrogen bonds in maintaining their structure, revolutionizing our understanding of protein chemistry

Beginning of the Golden Age of Antibiotics
1935 CE

The development and refinement of antibiotics continued, with scientists like Selman Waksman (who coined the term "antibiotic") discovering streptomycin and other antibiotics, providing critical tools against bacterial diseases.

Fleming’s Warning
1945 CE

In his Nobel lecture, Fleming warned about the danger of misusing antibiotics

“It is not difficult to make microbes resistant to penicillin in the laboratory by exposing them to concentrations not sufficient to kill them, and the same thing has occasionally happened in the body”

In an interview after being awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of Penicillin, Fleming said,

“The thoughtless person playing with penicillin treatment is morally responsible for the death of the man who succumbs to infection with the penicillin-resistant organism."

Conjugation
1946 CE

Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum demonstrated bacterial conjugation in Escherichia coli in 1946, a process of DNA transfer between bacteria, which was a major advance in understanding genetic recombination and cell biology. This work earned them the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958.

Penicillin Resistance
1947 CE

Just a few years after mass production of penicillin began, strains of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to penicillin were reported. This marked the first major instance of antibiotic resistance.

Plasmids
1952 CE

Joshua Lederberg discovered plasmids, extrachromosomal DNA elements that exist and replicate independently within bacterial cells. His groundbreaking work revealed how plasmids can carry genes beneficial to bacteria, such as those conferring antibiotic resistance, and can be transferred between bacteria.

Methicillin
1952 CE

Methicillin developed to overcome penicillin resistance.

Bacteriocins
1953 CE

The term "bacteriocin" was coined in 1953, derived from the combination of "bacterio-", referring to bacteria, and "-cin", a suffix used in biology to denote a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of certain types of cells. It was used to describe the colicins discovered by André Gratia.

Insulin
1958 CE

Frederick Sanger elucidated the amino acid sequence of insulin, marking the first time a protein's structure was fully determined. This breakthrough was fundamental in understanding how protein structure affects function, and earned him a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958.

Horizontal Gene Transfer
1960s CE

The mechanisms of bacterial resistance began to be unraveled. Scientists like Tsutomu Watanabe identified R plasmids (resistance plasmids) responsible for transferring drug resistance between bacteria.

Methicillin Resistance
1961 CE

The first documented case of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) occurred in the United Kingdom just one year after the clinical introduction of methicillin.

Quorum Sensing
1970 CE

Kenneth Nealson, Terry Platt, and J. Woodland Hastings discovered quorum sensing in the early 1970s, revealing how the marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri regulates bioluminescence based on population density. This breakthrough provided key insights into bacterial communication and collective behavior.

Genetic Engineering
1973 CE

Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin. This groundbreaking work laid the foundation for modern biotechnology and the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

A New World
1977 CE

Introduction of the first biotech drug, human insulin produced by genetically engineered Escherichia coli.

MRSA
1980s CE

Recognition of MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) as a significant health threat. Patricia J. Brennan and others contributed to understanding the genetics behind MRSA.

Ulcers
1982 CE

The discovery of Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and as the most common cause peptic ulcers.

Discovery Void
1980s CE

The last new class of antibiotics developed and brought to market was in the late 1980s. Since then, most new antibiotics have been variations of existing classes, known as "me-too" drugs, which are modifications of existing antibiotics to overcome bacterial resistance or improve efficacy.

PCR
1983 CE

Development of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique by Kary Mullis, a revolutionary tool that enhanced bacterial gene study and detection.

Vancomycin Resistance
1986 CE

The first clinical isolates of Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) were reported in Europe. Shortly after, cases appeared in the United States.

Bacterial Genomics
1995 CE

First complete bacterial genome (Haemophilus influenzae) sequenced by Craig Venter and colleagues.

Vancomycin Resistance, Again
2002 CE

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports the first case of Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) in the United States. Vancomycin is considered a "last-resort" antibiotic.

Bacteria in Space
2006 CE

In 2006, a species of bacteria, Bacillus safensis, was discovered in the clean rooms used to assemble spacecraft at NASA, suggesting these bacteria could potentially survive space travel.

Human Microbiome Project
2007 CE

Initiated in 2007, the Human Microbiome Project represented a major effort to understand the diverse bacterial communities living in and on the human body. The first phase aimed to map the normal bacterial makeup of the body.

CRISPR-Cas9
2010 CE

Bacteria use CRISPR-Cas9 as an immune mechanism to fend off invading viruses by precisely cutting and disabling the viral DNA. Discovered by scientists Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier, this bacterial defense mechanism was adapted into a powerful tool for editing genes in various organisms, revolutionizing genetic research and therapy.

The Threat of Antibiotic Resistance
2013 CE

The CDC releases a landmark report to raise awareness and understanding of the growing problem of antibiotic resistance. It estimated that at least 2 million people in the United States get an antibiotic-resistant infection annually, and at least 23,000 die as a result.

Human Microbiome Project, Again
2014 CE

Phase two of the human microbiome project launched in 2014; the Integrative Human Microbiome Project. This second phase investigated the role of the microbiome in human health and disease states. The project revealed the critical role of bacteria in various bodily functions and their impact on conditions ranging from obesity to mental health.

The Economic Toll of Antibiotic Resistance
2017 CE

The World Bank releases a report that estimates antimicrobial resistance could result in $1 trillion additional healthcare costs by 2050, and $1 trillion to $3.4 trillion gross domestic product (GDP) losses per year by 2030.

Organicin Scientific Founded
2018 CE

Organicin Scientific spins out of Dr. Riley’s lab at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, seeking to establish bacteriocins as the modern-day solution to bacterial disease and antibiotic resistance.

AMR to Kill More Than Cancer
2022 CE

The World Health Organization states that by 2050, Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) will result in more deaths than cancer.